Understanding the Kurdish Regions: Iran, Iraq, Syria, and Turkey

The Kurdish people, numbering over 35 million globally, are one of the largest ethnic groups in the world without a country of their own. Instead, their ancestral homeland known as Kurdistan, is split across four modern-day nation-states: Turkey, Iraq, Syria, and Iran. While Kurds share a common language, culture, and national identity, their experiences in each of these countries have been shaped by very different histories and political systems. This division has created not only physical borders but also distinct struggles, levels of autonomy, and forms of resistance. Understanding each region is essential to understanding the broader Kurdish cause.

Turkey: Bakur (Northern Kurdistan)

In Turkey, the Kurdish population is estimated at around 15 to 20 million, making them the largest ethnic minority in the country. After the fall of the Ottoman Empire, the newly formed Turkish Republic, under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, pursued an aggressive policy of nationalism and assimilation. The 1923 Treaty of Lausanne recognized Turkey as a sovereign nation but made no mention of the Kurds. The result was a century-long denial of Kurdish identity. For decades, Kurdish language, music, and even the word "Kurd" itself were banned. Cities were renamed to erase Kurdish heritage, and the state referred to Kurds as “Mountain Turks.”

Despite heavy repression, Kurdish resistance never stopped. From the Sheikh Said Rebellion in 1925 to the Dersim uprising in 1937–38, Kurds continued to rise up against the state, only to face brutal crackdowns. In the late 20th century, the Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK) began a guerrilla campaign initially aimed at achieving independence but later focused on autonomy and cultural rights. Turkey responded with military campaigns, forced displacements, and political persecution. Thousands of Kurdish villages were destroyed, and millions of Kurds were uprooted from their homes.

Today, while the outright ban on Kurdish culture has eased slightly, political repression is still widespread. The pro-Kurdish Peoples’ Democratic Party (HDP) faces continuous targeting by the Turkish state, with many of its leaders imprisoned or banned from politics. Kurdish journalists, activists, and ordinary citizens continue to be arrested for expressing their identity. Despite these conditions, Kurdish culture, art, and resistance remain alive, with a growing youth movement focused on democracy, language revival, and justice.

Iraq: Başûr (Southern Kurdistan)

Among all the Kurdish regions, Iraqi Kurdistan, located in the north of Iraq, has made the most progress toward self-rule. With a population of around 6 to 8 million Kurds, the region has endured a history of oppression but now enjoys formal autonomy under the Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG). During Saddam Hussein’s rule, Iraqi Kurds faced genocidal campaigns, most notoriously the Anfal campaign between 1986 and 1989. During this period, approximately 180,000 Kurds were killed, and thousands of villages were wiped off the map. The chemical attack on the city of Halabja in 1988, which killed over 5,000 civilians, remains one of the most horrifying war crimes in modern history.

Following the Gulf War in 1991, a U.S.-backed no-fly zone allowed Kurds to establish a de facto autonomous region. In 2005, Iraq’s new constitution officially recognized the KRG, granting it political and military control over parts of northern Iraq. Today, the KRG governs a region with its own parliament, armed forces (known as the Peshmerga), and flag. Erbil, the capital of Iraqi Kurdistan, has emerged as a growing cultural and political hub for the Kurdish nation.

In 2017, the KRG held an independence referendum in which more than 92% of voters supported leaving Iraq. However, the referendum was opposed by the Iraqi central government, as well as by neighboring countries and international powers. In response, Iraqi forces seized the oil-rich and historically Kurdish city of Kirkuk. While the dream of independence remains, it has been temporarily set aside in favor of maintaining stability.

Today, Iraqi Kurdistan faces significant internal challenges, including political divisions between the dominant parties (KDP and PUK), corruption, and economic dependence on oil. Still, it represents the most advanced model of Kurdish self-governance, and a powerful symbol of what a Kurdish future could look like.

Syria: Rojava (Western Kurdistan)

In Syria, the Kurdish population, estimated at 2 to 3 million, has long been treated as second-class citizens. In 1962, over 120,000 Syrian Kurds were stripped of their citizenship overnight during a government census, leaving generations without legal identity. Under the Ba’athist regime, Kurdish culture and language were banned, and Kurdish-majority areas in the north were subjected to Arabization policies. Kurdish place names were changed, and Arab settlers were relocated into Kurdish regions to dilute their demographic presence.

With the outbreak of the Syrian civil war in 2011, the Kurdish-majority areas in northern Syria seized a rare opportunity for self-determination. The Democratic Union Party (PYD), affiliated with the PKK, led the establishment of the Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria (AANES), commonly referred to as Rojava. Built on principles of grassroots democracy, environmental sustainability, ethnic inclusivity, and gender equality, Rojava has become one of the most ambitious political experiments in the Middle East.

Rojava gained global recognition for its resistance against ISIS, especially during the 2014–2015 Siege of Kobane. Kurdish-led forces, including the all-female YPJ (Women’s Protection Units), became symbols of bravery and resistance. The formation of the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF), a multi-ethnic military coalition led by the YPG, allowed Kurdish fighters to defeat ISIS across large swaths of northeastern Syria.

However, Rojava’s survival remains precarious. Turkey views the PYD and YPG as terrorist organizations and has launched military invasions into Kurdish-held areas, including Afrin in 2018 and Serekaniye in 2019. These offensives have resulted in massive civilian displacement, war crimes, and demographic engineering. Despite these threats, the people of Rojava continue to build their society, running schools, health clinics, and local councils, all rooted in democratic self-rule and cultural revival.

Iran: Rojhilat (Eastern Kurdistan)

In Iran, Kurdish identity has long been criminalized and suppressed. Around 8 to 10 million Kurds live in the country’s western provinces, yet they face systemic discrimination, economic marginalization, and political exclusion. After World War II, Kurdish nationalists briefly established the Republic of Mahabad in 1946, a short-lived independent Kurdish state supported by the Soviet Union. It was crushed within a year, and its leaders were executed. The memory of Mahabad remains a powerful symbol of Kurdish resistance.

Under successive Iranian regimes, including the Islamic Republic, the state has consistently targeted Kurdish activists, artists, and intellectuals. Kurdish political parties are banned, and many Kurdish prisoners are executed on vague charges such as "enmity against God." Kurdish regions are among the poorest in Iran, lacking infrastructure, investment, and services.

Despite the risks, Kurdish resistance in Iran continues. In recent years, Kurdish women have played a leading role in the Jin, Jiyan, Azadî (“Woman, Life, Freedom”) movement, which began after the death of Jina (Mahsa) Amini, a Kurdish woman killed in the custody of Iran’s morality police in 2022. The protests that followed ignited a national uprising, with Kurds once again at the forefront of the fight for freedom and dignity.

One Nation, Divided

While separated by state borders, the Kurdish people remain united by a common struggle for recognition, freedom, and the right to determine their own future. The experience of each Kurdish region, from the relative autonomy of Iraqi Kurdistan to the radical democracy of Rojava, from the heavy repression in Turkey to the resistance in Iran, reflects a larger story of a nation divided but not broken.

Our nonprofit stands to amplify Kurdish voices, preserve Kurdish culture, and raise awareness of the injustices faced across all parts of Kurdistan. Understanding the differences between these regions helps us better appreciate the resilience and richness of the Kurdish identity and why this cause matters not just for Kurds, but for all who believe in justice and self-determination.